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Edgar Cayce (1877 – 1945) was one of the best-known American psychics of the 20th century and made many highly publicized predictions.
In popular culture the word psychic (pronounced /ˈsaɪkɨk/; from the Greek psychikos - "of the soul, mental") refers to the ability to perceive things hidden from the senses through means of extra-sensory perception. The term also refers to theatrical performers who use techniques such as prestidigitation and cold reading to produce the appearance of having such abilities. Parapsychologists attempt to study what some believe are psychic phenomena using a variety of methods such as random number generators to test for psychokinesis or the Ganzfeld experiment to test for extra-sensory perception.
Early examples of individuals thought by some to have psychic powers include the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi who was thought to provide prophecies from Apollo himself as well as Nostradamus, a French apothecary who is thought by some to have had the ability to predict the future. During the 19th century belief in psychics became more common and many notable individuals gained notoriety including Daniel Dunglas Home. Psychics are also very popular in science fiction today and many works of fiction include individuals with psychic abilities, including The Dead Zone by Stephen King as well as Jean Grey from the Marvel comic book universe. Today, belief in psychic phenomena is widespread amongst the general public. A 2005 Gallup poll concluded that 41% of Americans believe in extra-sensory perception.Gallup poll shows that Americans\' belief in the paranormal persists, Skeptical Inquirer, accessed October 28, 2006
The existence of extra sensory psychic abilities is disputed by skeptics who contend that there is no scientific evidence supporting such abilities and apparent psychic phenomena are nothing more than intentional trickery or self delusion. Debunker James Randi has offered a $1 million prize to any individual who can, under controlled circumstances, demonstrate any paranormal or supernatural ability. As of yet, no aspirants have passed his preliminary tests.
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The word psychic is derived from the Greek word psychikos (of the soul/mental) and refers in part to the human mind or psyche (ex. "psychic turmoil"). French astronomer and spiritualist Camille Flammarion is credited as having first used the word psychic, while it was later introduced to the English language by Edward William Cox in the 1870s.Melton, J. G. (1996). Psychic. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology. Thomson Gale. ISBN 978-0810394872. Some credit William Crookes, an English chemist and physicist, as having first used the term in describing medium and magician Daniel Dunglas Home.Carroll, Robert Todd (2005). Psychic. Skepdic.com. The Skeptics Dictionary. Retrieved on 2007-08-10.
Aegeus, a mythical king of Athens, consults the Pythia, who sits on a tripod.
Elaborate systems of divination and fortune-telling date back to ancient times. Perhaps the most widely-known system of early civilization fortune-telling was astrology, where practitioners believed the relative positions of celestial bodies could lend insight into people\'s lives and even predict their future circumstances. Some fortune-tellers were said to be able to make predictions without the use of these elaborate systems (or in conjunction with them), through some sort of direct apprehension or vision of the future. These people were known as seers or prophets, and in later times as clairvoyants and psychics.
Seers formed a functionary role in early civilization, often serving as advisors, priests, and judges.Melton, J. G. (1996). Prophecy. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology. Thomson Gale. ISBN 978-0810394872. A number of examples are included in biblical accounts. The book of 1 Samuel (Chapter 9) illustrates one such functionary task when Samuel is asked to locate the donkeys of the future king Saul.1 Samuel Chapter 9/Hebrew - English Bible. Retrieved 19 September 2007. The role of prophet appeared perennially in ancient cultures. In Egypt, the priests of Ra at Memphis acted as seers. In ancient Assyria seers were referred to as nabu, meaning "to call" or "announce".
The Delphic Oracle is one of the earliest stories in classical antiquity of psychic abilities. The Pythia, the priestess presiding over the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, was believed to be able to deliver prophecies inspired by Apollo during rituals beginning in the 8th century BC.Morgan 1990, p. 148. It is often said that the Pythia delivered oracles in a frenzied state induced by vapors rising from the ground, and that she spoke gibberish, believed to be the voice of Apollo, which priests reshaped into the enigmatic prophecies preserved in Greek literature.For an example, see Farnell 1907, p. 189. Other scholars believe records from the time indicate that the Pythia spoke intelligibly, and gave prophecies in her own voice.Fontenrose 1978, pp. 196-227; Maurizio 2001, pp. 38-54. The Pythia was a position served by a succession of women probably selected from amongst a guild of priestesses of the temple. The last recorded response was given in 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius I ordered pagan temples to cease operation. Recent geological investigations raise the possibility that ethylene gas caused the Pythia\'s state of inspiration.Spiller et al., 2000; de Boer, et al., 2001; Hale et al. 2003.Mason, Betsy. The Prophet of Gases in ScienceNow Daily News 2 October 2006. Retrieved 11 October 2006.
Michel de Nostredame (Nostradamus) was a seer who published collections of prophecies in the 1500s.
One of the most enduring historical references to what some consider to be psychic ability is the prophecies of Michel de Nostredame (1503 – 1566), often Latinized to Nostradamus, published during the French Renaissance period. Nostradamus, was a French apothecary and seer who wrote collections of prophecies that have since become famous world-wide and have rarely been out of print since his death. He is best known for his book Les Propheties, the first edition of which appeared in 1555. Taken together, his written works are known to have contained at least 6,338 quatrains or prophecies,Chevignard, Bernard, Présages de Nostradamus 1999 as well as at least eleven annual calendars. Most of the quatrains deal with disasters, such as plagues, earthquakes, wars, floods, invasions, murders, droughts, and battles — all undated.Nostradamus is a controversial figure. His many enthusiasts, as well as the popular press, credit him with predicting numerous major world events. Interest in his work is still considerable, especially in the media and in popular culture. By contrast, most academic scholars maintain that the associations made between world events and Nostradamus\' quatrains are largely the result of misinterpretations or mistranslations (sometimes deliberate) or else are so tenuous as to render them useless as evidence of any genuine predictive power.Lemesurier, Peter, The Unknown Nostradamus, 2003
In addition to the belief that some historical figures were endowed with a predisposition to psychic experiences, some psychic abilities were thought to be available to everyone on occasion. For example, the belief in prophetic dreams was common and persistent in many ancient cultures.Melton, J. G. (1996). Dreams. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology. Thomson Gale. ISBN 978-0810394872.
In the mid-nineteenth century, Modern Spiritualism became prominent in the United States and the United Kingdom. The movement\'s distinguishing feature was the belief that the spirits of the dead could be contacted by mediums to lend insight to the living.Carroll, Bret E. (1997). Spiritualism in Antebellum America. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33315-6. The movement was fueled in part by anecdotes of psychic powers. One such person believed to have extraordinary abilities was Daniel Dunglas Home, who gained notoriety during the Victorian period for his reported ability to levitate to a variety of heights and speak to the dead.Podmore, Frank (1997). Mediums of the Nineteenth Century. University Books. ISBN 0-253-33315-6.
As the Spiritualism movement grew, philosophical distinctions branched other groups, including the Theosophical Society, which was co-founded in 1875 by Helena Blavatsky (1831 - 1891). Blavatsky coupled Spiritualism with Eastern mysticism forming both Theosophy and the early roots of what would later become known as the New Age movement during the 1970s. Blavatsky herself claimed numerous psychic powers.Melton, J. G. (1996). Theosophical Society. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology. Thomson Gale. ISBN 978-0810394872.
A survey of the beliefs of the general United States population regarding paranormal topics was conducted by the Gallup Organization in 2005.Gallup poll shows that Americans\' belief in the paranormal persists, Skeptical Inquirer, accessed October 28, 2006 The survey found that 41 percent of those polled believed in extrasensory perception and 26 percent believed in clairvoyance. Thirty-one percent of those surveyed indicated that they believe in telepathy or psychic communication.
A poll of 439 college students conducted in 2006 by researchers Bryan Farha of Oklahoma City University and Gary Steward of University of Central Oklahoma, suggested that college seniors and graduate students were more likely to believe in psychic phenomena than college freshmen. Twenty-three percent of college freshmen expressed a belief in paranormal ideas. The percentage was greater among college seniors (31%) and graduate students (34%).Britt, R.: "Higher Education Fuels Stronger Belief in Ghosts" LiveScience, January 2006, Retrieved September 18, 2007.
Some people also believe that psychic abilities can be activated or enhanced through the study and practice of various disciplines and techniques such as meditation, with a number of books and websites being dedicated to instruction in these methods. Another popular belief is that psychic ability is hereditary, with a psychic parent passing their abilities on to their children.Hargreaves, Julie: Psychics - myths & misconceptions, Nov 2002, Retrieved April 25, 2007. http://www.hark.net.au/articles/psychics_info.htm
Many people proclaim to have psychic abilities and some make a living as professional fortune tellers or host their own TV programs. Individuals such as John Edward and Sylvia Browne either have their own television shows or are frequently featured on talk shows. (see Paranormal television).
Other celebrity psychics, like Tana Hoy, attempt to help people identify and fine tune their psychic abilities. They teach classes and liken the instruction to coaching a fine art like singing, painting or writing.
The use of psychic abilities as a plot device or super power is common in fiction. For example, novel The Dead Zone by Stephen King - and subsequent film and TV series - about a psychic named Johnny Smith whose abilities are awakened after a car accident. Other examples include characters such as Jean Grey from the Marvel and DC comic book universes.
Participant of a Ganzfeld Experiment which proponents say may show evidence of telepathy.
Psychical research is largely conducted in the field of parapsychology. Parapsychological research uses a variety of qualitative and quantitative methodologies in an attempt to find evidence for psychic ability. Parapsychological Association FAQ. Parapsychological Association (1995). Retrieved on 2007-07-02. The experimental methods of parapsychologists include the use of random number generators to test for psychokinesis, mild sensory deprivation in the Ganzfeld experiment to test for extra-sensory perception, and research trials conducted under contract by the U.S. government to investigate remote viewing. The statistical methods of parapsychologists have generated a number of meta-analytical studies, which combine the data from several previous experiments into one large data set. Although all of the research methods of parapsychology have contributed to the field, the experimental and statistical methods have attracted much attention and debate.Gracely, Ph.D., Ed J. (1998). Why Extraordinary Claims Demand Extraordinary Proof. PhACT. Retrieved on 2007-07-31.Myers, David G; Blackmore, Susan. Putting ESP to the Experimental Test. Hope College. Retrieved on 2007-07-31.Parapsychology is a fringe science because it involves research that does not fit within standard theoretical models accepted by mainstream science. Scientists such as psychologists Ray Hyman and James A. Alcock, among others, are critical of the methodology and results of parapsychology. Skeptical researchers suggest that methodological flaws best explain apparently successful experimental results, as opposed to the paranormal explanations offered by many parapsychologists. Some critical analysts argue that parapsychology crosses the line into pseudoscience.[1] To date, no evidence has been accepted by the mainstream scientific community as irrefutably supporting paranormal phenomena.Hyman, Ray (1995). "Evaluation of the program on anomalous mental phenomena". The Journal of Parapsychology 59 (1). Retrieved on 2007-07-30. Akers, C. (1986). "Methodological Criticisms of Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 4". PesquisaPSI. Retrieved on 2007-07-30.Child, I.L. (1987). "Criticism in Experimental Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 5". PesquisaPSI. Retrieved on 2007-07-30.Wiseman, Richard; Smith, Matthew, et al. (1996). "Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments - Psychophysical Research Laboratories". The Journal of Parapsychology. Retrieved on 2007-07-30.
The existence of psychic abilities and the validity of parapsychological experiments is disputed by skeptics. Skeptics assert that the evidence presented for psychic phenomena is not sufficiently verified for scientific acceptance and contend that there are better non-paranormal alternative explanations available.Carroll, Robert Todd (2005). Psychic. Skepdic.com. The Skeptics Dictionary. Retrieved on 2007-08-10. Many parapsychologists who study psychic phenomena agree that many of the instances of more popular psychic phenomena such as mediumism and other psychic feats, can be attributed to non-paranormal techniques such as cold reading and hot reading, or even self-delusion.EBauer, berhard (1984) "Criticism and Controversy in Parapsychology - An Overview", Department of Psychology, University of Freiburg, European Journal of Parapsychology, 5, 141-166 (2007-02-09)O\',Keeffe, Ciarán and Wiseman Richard (2005) "Testing alleged mediumship: Methods and results", British Journal of Psychology, 96, 165–17 Magicians such as Ian Rowland and Derren Brown have demonstrated techniques and results similar to those of popular psychics, but they present psychological explanations opposed to paranormal ones.Rowland, Ian (2002) "The Full Facts Book of Cold Reading", Self-Published, ASIN B000NDYWDA They have identified, described, and developed complex psychological techniques of cold reading and hot reading. Numerous organizations also exist to promote skepticism and critical thinking concerning psychic and other paranormal phenomena. Organizations such as the Committee for Skeptical InquiryJeffers, Stanley (2006-05-01). The PEAR Proposition: Fact or Fallacy?. Skeptical Inquirer. Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Retrieved on 2007-04-25.Radford, Benjamin. CSI: Turning from Science to Psychics. Skeptical Inquirer. Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Retrieved on 2007-04-25. or the James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF) attempt to educate the public and encourage them to think critically about psychic phenomena.
Former stage magician and debunker James Randi has offered a $1 million prize to anyone who can actively demonstrate under controlled experimental circumstances that they possess a "psychic, supernatural or paranormal ability".One million dollar paranormal challenge, James Randi Educational Foundation (2007-04-25) In order to claim the prize, a challenger must first complete a preliminary evaluation - demonstrate a psychic ability in uncontrolled circumstances - and then demonstrate the same ability under mutually agreed upon, controlled, circumstances. To date none of the challengers have been able to pass the preliminary evaluation.
Correspondence and claims from 150 applicants are listed on the James Randi Educational Foundation website. Challenge Applications, JREF (2007-04-25)
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